Community Development Publications
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Data Updates: Measuring Evictions during the COVID-19 Crisis
Temporary policies put in place to protect renters are beginning to expire. To understand how the crisis is affecting evictions, our researchers measured eviction filing activity in 44 cities and counties across the nation. Read More
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Clicking for Credit: Experiences of Online Lender Applicants from the Small Business Credit Survey
What do we know about small businesses that sought credit from online lenders instead of traditional banks? They are more likely to have fewer employees, lower revenues, weaker credit scores, and fewer years in the business. They were also less likely to be approved for the full amount they requested. Read More
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Does Job Quality Affect Occupational Mobility?
Workers in the highest-quality jobs are more likely to remain in those jobs and less likely to be unemployed or leave the labor force. The opposite is true for workers in the lowest-quality jobs. This analysis adds to a growing body of research about job quality and shows that it is an important dimension of the labor market to consider. Read More
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Has Bank Consolidation Changed People’s Access to a Full-Service Bank Branch?
As consolidation within the banking industry during the 2000s accelerated in the 2010s, the number of banking institutions and the branches they operate fluctuated. How did these changes affect banking customers? Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2022 Report on Hiring and Worker Retention
Seventy-five percent of employer firms tried to hire workers in 2021; close to half called the experience “very difficult.” In response, firms most often increased wages or shifted more work to existing employees. Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2022 Report on Firms Owned by People of Color
Businesses owned by people of color faced more financial and operational challenges than their white-owned counterparts and often were less successful at obtaining the funding needed to weather the effects of the pandemic. Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2022 Report on Employer Firms
Revenue and employment improved for small businesses since 2020, but performance largely lags prepandemic levels. Financing approval rates continued to trend lower than in years prior to the pandemic. Read More
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Has Bank Consolidation Changed People’s Access to a Full-Service Bank Branch?
As consolidation within the banking industry during the 2000s accelerated in the 2010s, the number of banking institutions and the branches they operate fluctuated. How did these changes affect banking customers? Read More
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Missed Connections in Cleveland: The Disconnect Between Job Access and Employment
Generally, a high job-access rate has a positive impact on employment; that is, in areas where jobs are easier to reach, employment rates are usually higher. But this isn’t true for the Cleveland metro area. In fact, we see the reverse: Neighborhoods with high rates of job access tend to have low employment rates, and neighborhoods with low rates of job access tend to have high employment rates. Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2021 Report on Nonemployer Firms
Among the pandemic’s most impacted firms were the smallest businesses—nonemployer firms—which are businesses with no employees other than the owner(s). This report focuses on the experiences of nonemployer firms in the months leading up to the pandemic and the first six months of the crisis. Read More
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Rural Employment in Four States: A Story of Specialization and Change (2010 through 2019)
Is specializing in an industry the way to economic success or the road to economic challenges for rural communities? It depends on the community’s resilience. Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2021 Report on Firms Owned by People of Color
The COVID-19 pandemic has deeply impacted communities of color and small businesses of color, in many cases to a greater extent than their white counterparts. For example, firms owned by people of color reported more significant negative effects on business revenue, employment, and operations because of the pandemic. The report shows the pandemic only reinforced already-established disparities between white-owned firms and firms owned by people of color, such as weaker banking relationships, worse outcomes on credit applications, and a greater reliance on personal funds. Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2021 Report on Employer Firms
Small businesses continue to face challenges amid the COVID-19 pandemic, including weak demand, burdensome expenses, and limited credit availability. Nearly one-third of firms say they’re unlikely to survive without additional government aid until sales recover. Read More
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An Uphill Battle: COVID-19’s Outsized Toll on Minority-Owned Firms
Data suggest that minority-owned small businesses have been disproportionately impacted by the pandemic. This report considers various data sources and examines possible explanations for race-level differences in COVID-19’s impact on businesses. Read More
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The Decline in Access to Jobs and the Location of Employment Growth in US Metro Areas: Implications for Economic Opportunity and Mobility
Increasing workers’ access to jobs has been found to significantly decrease the duration of joblessness among lower-income unemployed workers. Policies that influence the location of employment growth within a metro area could impact the pace of the labor market recovery from the COVID-19-induced recession. By studying trends in job access, we discern developments that might inform our policy choices. Read More
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Measuring Evictions during the COVID-19 Crisis
Temporary policies put in place to protect renters are beginning to expire. To understand how the crisis is affecting evictions, our researchers measured eviction filing activity in 44 cities and counties across the nation. Read More
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Opportunity Occupations: A Way Ahead for People without a College Degree
People with bachelor’s degrees typically earn better wages and experience higher employment rates than workers who do not. Yet, more than two-thirds of US adults currently do not have a college degree. Since 2015, the Cleveland Fed, in partnership with Atlanta and Philadelphia Feds, has been exploring these trends by identifying occupations that pay above the national annual median wage and are generally accessible to those without a four-year college degree. Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2020 Report on Employer Firms
This report examines the state of minority-owned businesses, offering insights on their performance, access to financing, and experiences in the credit market. Read More
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Understanding the Disconnect between Economic Development and Workforce Development Systems
The economic development field encourages business and job growth, while workforce development ensures individuals have the education, skills, and training needed to obtain jobs. This report provides perspectives on alignment as well as challenges and opportunities for greater alignment between the two systems, using stakeholder input from the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland’s Fourth District. Read More
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Uncertain Terms: What Small Business Borrowers Find When Browsing Online Lender Websites
The information available to prospective borrowers on small business online lender websites varies widely, and it is not unusual for lenders to detail terms in footnotes, fine print, or frequently asked questions (FAQs). Read More
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Click, Submit 2.0: An Update on Online Lender Applicants from the Small Business Credit Survey
How do small businesses that apply to online alternative lenders compare to those that apply to traditional financial institutions only? And in what ways do their experiences with lenders differ? Read More
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Small Business Credit Survey 2019 Report on Minority-Owned Firms
This report examines the state of minority-owned businesses, offering insights on their performance, access to financing, and experiences in the credit market. Read More
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Strong Recovery for Whom? Trends in Dayton, Ohio, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Exemplify Growing Earnings Gaps between Minority and White Workers Present in Many US Regions
The gap in earnings between the typical white and minority worker grew in these two metro areas more than any other metro area during a 10-year period encompassing both the Great Recession and subsequent recovery. The reasons for the growing gap differ, reflecting divergent trends existent across the country. Read More
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Connectivity Is Critical: What We Learned From Three Rural Counties
No county is without challenges, but those in rural areas face a unique set of difficulties. Studying three of our region’s most economically challenged counties revealed that being connected—in a variety of ways—is crucial for success. Read More
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An Uneven Recovery: Home Lending in the Fourth District by Race and Income
Focusing on seven counties across Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky, our researchers used Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data to examine application and origination activity by income and race during the past 27 years (1990–2016). In a 13-year span preceding and following the Great Recession (2004–2016), three trends were consistent across all seven counties. Read More
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A Long Ride to Work: Job Access and the Potential Impact of Ride-Hailing in the Pittsburgh Area
Whether measured by proximity or commute time, data show that for the average transit rider, jobs are increasingly out of reach. Cleveland Fed researchers explored one solution for improving job access. Here’s your ticket to ride. Read More
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Home Lending in Lucas County Neighborhoods
Focusing on Lucas County, home to the city of Toledo, Ohio, begins with a broad look at application and origination activity during the past 27 years (1990–2016) and then delves into trends during the 13-year period from 2004 to 2016. Using maps and a series of figures and tables, we tell the story of mortgage lending during these periods from both the neighborhood and borrower perspectives. Read More
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Browsing to Borrow: “Mom & Pop” Small Business Perspectives on Online Lenders
The Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland partnered on a study of small business owners’ perceptions of online lending and their understanding and interpretation of the information that online lenders use to describe their credit products. The study found that while perceptions of online lenders were mixed, participating small businesses agreed that there is a need for clear disclosure of online lenders’ product costs and terms. Read More
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The State of Urban Manufacturing: Cincinnati City Snapshot
The Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland and the Urban Manufacturing Alliance (UMA) partnered for a study of the urban manufacturing sector in Cincinnati to learn more about the city’s manufacturing environment. The study included analysis of industry data and anecdotal data from more than 100 of the city’s manufacturing firms. Findings of the study revealed positive expectations, barriers to growth, and helpful recommendations for addressing challenges. Read More
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The Opioid Epidemic and Its Effects: A Perspective on What We Know from the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland
Drug overdoses are now the leading cause of death for Americans under 50. In the Fourth District states of Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, opioid overdose deaths are occurring at rates that exceed the 2016 national average of 13.2 deaths per 100,000 people. Read More
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Home Lending in Franklin County Neighborhoods
Focusing on Franklin County, Ohio, home to the city of Columbus, our researchers examined application and origination activity during the past 27 years (1990–2016) and dove into trends during the 13-year period from 2004 to 2016. Using maps and a series of figures and tables, we tell the story of mortgage lending during these periods from both the neighborhood and borrower perspectives. Read More
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Home Lending in Hamilton County Neighborhoods
Focusing on Hamilton County, Ohio, home to the city of Cincinnati, our researchers examined application and origination activity during the past 26 years (1990–2016) and dove into trends during the 13-year period from 2004 to 2016. Using maps and a series of figures and tables, we tell the story of mortgage lending during these periods from both the neighborhood and borrower perspectives. Read More
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Home Lending in Fayette County Neighborhoods
Focusing on Fayette County, Kentucky, home to the city of Lexington, this report takes a broad look at application and origination activity during the past 26 years (1990–2016) and delves into trends over the 13-year period from 2004 to 2016. Using maps and a series of figures and tables, we tell the story of mortgage lending during these periods from both the neighborhood and borrower perspectives. Read More
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Home Lending in Montgomery County Neighborhoods
We begin our report on Montgomery County, home to the city of Dayton, Ohio, with a broad look at application and origination activity during the past 27 years (1990 to 2016) and then delve into trends during the 13-year period from 2004 to 2016. Read More
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Opportunity Occupations: Exploring Employers’ Educational Preferences for Registered Nurses Using Online Job Posting Data
This A Look behind the Numbers takes a deep dive into the registered nurse (RN) labor market, using online job posting data to gain a better understanding of how much education employers prefer when hiring. Read More
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Home Lending in Cuyahoga County Neighborhoods
We begin our report on Cuyahoga County, home to the city of Cleveland, with a broad look at application and origination activity over the past 25 years (1990–2015), and then focus on the 12-year period from 2004 to 2015. Read More
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Home Lending in Allegheny County Neighborhoods
We begin this report on Allegheny County, home to the city of Pittsburgh, with a broad look at application and origination activity over the past 25 years (1990 to 2015), and then focus on the 12-year period from 2004 to 2015. Read More
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Neighborhood Change in the Fourth Federal Reserve District: A Multivariate Approach
This special report provides a description of neighborhood change in the four largest cities of the Fourth Federal Reserve District, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Columbus, Ohio, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from 1970 to 2010. Read More
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Broadband and High-speed Internet Access in the Fourth District
This report documents the availability of high-speed internet access in the Fourth Federal Reserve District. While our analysis clearly shows there is limited broadband access in rural parts of the Fourth District, it shows that urban low- and moderate-income (LMI) areas also have limited access. Read More
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Click, Submit: New Insights on Online Lender Applicants from the Small Business Credit Survey
How do small businesses that apply to online alternative lenders compare to those that apply to traditional financial institutions only? And in what ways do their experiences with lenders differ? Read More
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Addressing Employment Needs through Sector Partnerships: Case studies from across the Federal Reserve's Fourth District
In this special report we examine five sector-based partnerships in the Fourth District, formed at various times over the past decade or so to help address the job-skills mismatch facing employers in the health care, IT, advanced manufacturing, and marine mechanics industries. A fifth partnership formed to help retrain former coal workers for employment in other industries. While these initiatives differ in goals and in how they operate, they all involve employers from a particular industry collaborating with representatives from local and regional economic development offices, educational institutions, and nonprofits in order to meet the needs of jobseekers, the industry, and the region's economy. And overall, sector-based partnerships appear to be working, with evaluations identifying successful outcomes for both workers and employers in the form of increased wages, reductions in turnover, and increased productivity. Read More
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Lead Poisoning and the Children of Cuyahoga County
Lead poisoning has been a public health concern for decades. And water with high lead levels is only part of the problem. Read More
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Opportunity Occupations in Ohio: Identification, Online Postings, and Employer Education Preferences
In this report we take an in-depth look at “opportunity occupations”—those jobs that do not require a four-year degree and that pay a decent wage—in Ohio’s eight largest metro areas. Read More
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A Long Ride to Work: Job Access and Public Transportation in Northeast Ohio
The daily commute is more than just an individual’s journey to work; it also represents opportunities that that person can access. Read More
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Identifying Opportunity Occupations in the Nation’s Largest Metropolitan Economies
Researchers investigate the extent to which the U.S. economy offers decent-paying jobs to workers without a four-year college degree. Read More
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Demystifying the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) for Community and Economic Developers: A Primer
Effective July 1, 2015, provisions of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act, or WIOA, went into effect. Read More
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Alternative Lending through the Eyes of “Mom-and-Pop” Small-Business Owners
The online alternative lending industry is reportedly growing rapidly, and recent surveys indicate that small businesses are increasingly borrowing from these online sources that tout quick funding and less-stringent borrower requirements. Read More
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Applying Research to Policy Issues in Distressed Housing Markets: Data-Driven Decision Making
This publication is a compilation of research published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland on housing markets that are experiencing foreclosure and/or a large number of vacant properties, including a policy white paper released May 2013... Read More
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Good News and Bad News on Small Business Lending in 2014
Last year brought better news for U.S. small businesses. Read More
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A WIB Turns to Demand: Helping Job Seekers by Serving Employers
For years, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, had two separate Workforce Investment Boards (WIBs), one that served Cleveland residents and another that served the remainder of the county. Read More
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What Counts: Harnessing Data for America's Communities
This book is a response to explosive interest in and availability of data, especially for improving America’s communities. It is designed for practitioners, policymakers, funders, and the data intermediaries and other technical experts. Read More
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Employment Trends in Two Sectors Show a Region in Transition
In this data brief, we examine trends in population and private employment in 17 metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) in the Fourth District. Read More
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Strengthening Communities with Neighborhood Data
In the two decades since the first NNIP data system was developed, dramatic changes have occurred in the community information field and its context. First, the partnership itself has expanded, with local partners now in about three dozen cities. Read More
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The Prospects of Non-College-Bound Workers in the Fourth District
Throughout the analysis, we point to relevant labor market research as we examine the prospects of workers in the region without a college degree. Read More
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Workforce Development Challenges in Ohio
In this special report, we summarize outreach visits conducted in 2013 with workforce development providers across the State of Ohio. Read More
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Workforce Development Listening Sessions in Pennsylvania
In the summer of 2013, the Federal Reserve Banks of Philadelphia and Cleveland held five regional listening sessions on workforce development in cities across the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Read More
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Education and Employment Opportunities for Younger Workers in the Cleveland MSA
This data brief describes changes in the Cleveland MSA labor market during the recession and recovery period of 2006-2011. Read More
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Education and Employment Opportunities for Younger Workers in the Cincinnati MSA
In this data brief, we describe changes in the Cincinnati MSA labor market the recession and recovery period of 2006-2011. Read More
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Education and Employment Opportunities for Younger Workers in Kentucky Metro Areas
In this data brief, we describe changes in the labor market of Kentucky's metros during the recession and recovery period of 2006-2011. Read More
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Education and Employment Opportunities for Younger Workers in the Pittsburgh MSA
In this data brief, we describe changes in the Pittsburgh MSA labor market during the recession and recovery period of 2006-2011. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of June 2013
The focus of this issue is trends in underwater loans, home prices, and refinancing rates in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Read More
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Policy Considerations for Improving Ohio’s Housing Markets
In this report, we outline some of the main findings from the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland’s years of research and outreach with Ohio bankers, community development practitioners, and other market participants Read More
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Distressed Loans in Ohio: Are Loss-Mitigation Tools Easing Distress?
In October 2010, not long after the Home Affordable Mortgage Program (HAMP) was implemented to help address the increasing numbers of distressed loans, we published an analysis of Ohio loan modifications that were performed between 2008 and 2010. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of June 2012
With the "foreclosure pipeline" still quite full, REO sales remain the most common exit for distressed loans in all Fourth District states. Shares are steady in West Virginia and Pennsylvania; Kentucky and Ohio. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of December 2011
This edition finds that compared to a year ago many counties in Ohio and West Virginia have seen decreases in both delinquency and foreclosure rates, while counties in Kentucky and Pennsylvania have seen increases in both. Read More
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Rental housing patterns in Cuyahoga County, Ohio
Traditionally, renting has served as a stepping-stone to homeownership as well as an alternative for those seeking flexibility and more affordable places to live. Read More
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Putting Data to Work: Data-Driven Approaches to Strengthening Neighborhoods
Across the nation, communities have identified promising ways to target increasingly scarce resources to jumpstart and sustain neighborhood investment, and thereby help to promote economic recovery. Read More
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Manufacturing and Pollution: Trends in Old and New Industrial Centers
Less than 60 years ago, the states adjoining the Great Lakes led the nation in making things. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of August 2011
For this edition of our data brief, we look at how loans are faring 12 months after they enter foreclosure, and compare results from two time periods. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of May 2011
Housing markets are still struggling. The latest edition of Mortgage Lending Patterns takes a regional look at housing conditions in the Fourth District. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of December 2010
The 8th edition of the data brief finds that the glut of loans greater than 90 days delinquent is subsiding from its high in early 2010 as they naturally progress into foreclosure. Read More
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Mortgage Delinquencies in Ohio: Are Loan Modifications Stemming the Tide?
In spite of ongoing federal and state relief efforts, many Ohio homeowners are still facing the risk of foreclosure. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of July 2010
Troubling trends remain in this edition of the data brief. While the percent of loans at least 60 days delinquent has decreased, these loans appear to be flowing into foreclosure, which is ticking up. Read More
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REO & Vacant Properties: Strategies for Neighborhood Stabilization
The foreclosure crisis that the nation continues to grapple with has led to scores of real-estate-owned, or REO, properties. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of April 2010
Over the last four years, FHA-insured loans increased as a share of all loans by 29 percentage points from 8.2% to 37.3%. Given their popularity, how have these mortgages performed? Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of December 2009
Typically thought of as the better-performing relative of subprime loans, prime loans have suffered from increasing delinquency rates as unemployment rates remain high Read More
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Facing the Foreclosure Crisis in Greater Cleveland: What Happened and How Communities are Responding
The foreclosure crisis is among the most significant challenges facing American cities today. It has been difficult as a nation to assess the damage to housing stock, neighborhoods, and communities... Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of October 2009
This edition focuses on trends in real estate owned properties (REO) and foreclosures rates. Read More
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FHA Lending in Ohio
Recent news articles have carried the worrisome suggestion that Federal Housing Administration (FHA)-insured loans may be "the next subprime." Read More
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Hidden Counties: Rural Appalachia in the Fourth District States
Although not directly affected by the boom and bust of the housing market, Appalachia, and more specifically rural Appalachia, might be fighting the current recession's aftershocks for quite some time. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of July 2009
The third installment in the series examines recent trends in delinquency rates for both prime and subprime loans in 4th District states. Read More
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Subprime Loan Report for Youngstown
This report compares data on the performance of subprime home mortgage loans in the Youngstown Ohio metro area, and the states comprising the Fourth Federal Reserve District. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of March 2009
The second installment in the series takes a look at how loans were performing in March 2009. Read More
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Subprime Loan Report for Pittsburgh
Recent news articles have carried the worrisome suggestion that Federal Housing Administration (FHA)-insured loans may be "the next subprime." Read More
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CRA Lending in the 4th District
The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) has come under scrutiny as one of the suspected contributors to the current financial crisis. Read More
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Mortgage Lending Patterns in Fourth District Communities as of March 2009
In response to constituents’ requests for data, the Community Development team has developed a new format to provide periodic snapshots of mortgage lending and foreclosure patterns in the 4th District at the county level. Read More
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Revisiting the CRA: Perspectives on the Future of the Community Reinvestment Act
The Community Reinvestment Act (CRA), enacted in 1977, has fostered access to financial services for low- and moderate-income communities across the country. Read More
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Foreclosure Patterns in Allegheny County, PA
This is the second report in a series that looks at the geographic distribution of foreclosures in counties located within the Federal Reserve's Fourth District. Read More
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Subprime Loan Report for Cleveland and the Fourth District
This report compares data on the performance of subprime home mortgage loans in the Cleveland metropolitan area and the Fourth Federal Reserve District. Read More
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Spatial Analysis of the Impact of Vacant, Abandoned, and Foreclosed Properties
This research considers jointly the impacts of two challenges often analyzed separately in the context of the single-family housing market of Columbus, Ohio. Read More
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The Enduring Challenge of Concentrated Poverty in America: Case Studies from Communities Across the US
In May of 2006, the Community Affairs Officers from 12 Reserve Banks and the Board of Governors heard a presentation on concentrated poverty from Alan Berube of the Brookings Institution and Paul Jargowsky of the University of Texas at Dallas. Read More
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A Look at Foreclosure Filings in Cuyahoga County
While effects of the crisis are being felt in regions across the country, Cuyahoga County has consistently been listed at or near the top of areas hit hardest by foreclosure. Read More